Natnain natna tluklehdingawn 3 vel emaw a aia tam emaw a tihbo hma khan he thing hian America ram industry hmasawn tak din a pui a ni. An ropuina bo tawh chu siam ṭhat leh tûr chuan thilsiamte chu kan pawm a, kan siam ṭhat a ngai mai thei.
Kum 1989 hun engemaw chen chu Herbert Darling-a chuan call a dawng a: Sava mantu pakhat chuan New York chhim lam Zor Valley-a Darling-a ram chhungah American chestnut thing sang tak a tawk tih a hrilh a. Darling chuan chestnut hi hmân laiin chu lai hmuna thing pawimawh ber pakhat a ni tih a hria a. Kum zabi khat leh a chanve chuang zet chu fungus thihna thlen thei tak chuan chu chi chu a tichhe vek mai tih a hria bawk. Chestnut nung a hmuh thu ramsa mantu report a hriat chuan, chu chestnut zung chu feet hnih zeta sei a ni a, in chhawng nga zeta sang a thleng a, chu chu a ringhlel ta a ni. “Eng nge a nih a hriat ka ring lo,” Darling chuan a ti a.
Darling-a’n thing a hmuh chuan thawnthua mi pakhat a en ang mai a ni. Ani chuan: “Specimen siam chu a awlsamin a famkim hle-a ropui hle,” a ti. Mahse Darling pawh chuan thingkung chu a thi dawn tih a hmu a. Kum 1900 chho tir a\ang khan hripui ang bawk hian a lo nuai tawh a, chutiang natna avanga thi tluklehdingawn 3 emaw a aia tam emaw nia chhut a ni. Hei hi tunlai history-a thing tichhe bertu mihring kaihhnawih natna hmasa ber a ni. Darling chuan, chu thing chu a chhanchhuak thei lo a nih chuan a chi tal chu a chhanchhuak ngei ang tih a ngaihtuah a. Buaina pakhat chauh a awm a, chu chu thing hian engmah a ti lo a ni, a chhan chu a bulah chestnut thing dang pollinate thei tur a awm loh vang a ni.
Darling hi engineer a ni a, engineer-te hmanraw hmanga harsatna sutkian nan a hmang thin. A hnu June thlaah chuan thingpui huan dum chungah pangpar sen hring hring a darh a, Darling-a chuan shot ammunition-ah shot powder a khat a, chu chu a zir chhuah chestnut thing dang pangpar mipa atanga lak a ni a, hmar lam pan chuan a tlan ta a ni. Darkar khat leh a chanve vel a ni. Helicopter rent atang khan thing chu a kap ta a. (In sakna company hlawhtling tak, extravagance phur thei tak a enkawl a ni.) He hmalakna hi a hlawhchham ta a ni. A kum leh chuan Darling-a chuan a tum leh ta a. Tun ṭumah hian a fapa nen chuan scaffolding chu tlang chhipa chestnut-te hnenah an hruai a, kar hnih chuang chhungin feet 80-a sang platform an siam a ni. Ka hmangaih chu canopy-ah chuan a chho a, chestnut thing dang chungah chuan rulhut ang maia pangpar nen chuan pangpar chu a hrufai a.
Chumi thlasik lai chuan Darling-a thing hnah chuan hling dum hring hring in khuh burr a siam chhuak ta a ni. Heng hlingte hi a thuk a, a hrual em em a, cacti tia hriat sual theih a ni. Harvest a tam lo a, nut 100 vel a awm a, mahse Darling hian a phun tlem a, beiseina a pin a ni. A thianpa nen pawh Syracuse-a State University of New York School of Environmental Science and Forestry-a thing geneticist pahnih Charles Maynard leh William Powell te an biak pawh a (Chuck leh Bill te chu an thi). Tun hnai khan chutah chuan budget tlem zawka chestnut research project an tan a. Darling chuan chestnut engemaw zat a pe a, scientist te hnenah chuan an rawn hruai kir leh theih nan an hmang thei ang em tih a zawt a. Darling-a chuan: “Hei hi thil ropui tak niin a lang,” a ti. “United States hmar lam zawng zawng.” Amaherawhchu, kum engemaw zat a liam hnu chuan ama thing ngei pawh a thi ta a.
European-hoin North America-a an awm tan tirh atang khan continent-a ramngaw chungchang thawnthu hi a tam zawk chu hlohna a ni. Mahse, tunah chuan Darling-a rawtna hi mi tam tak chuan he thawnthu hi siamṭhat ṭan theihna hun remchang beisei awm ber pakhatah an ngai ta a ni – kumin kum tir lam khan Templeton World Charity Foundation chuan Maynard leh Powell-a The project chuan a history tam zawk chu a pe a, he hmalakna hian $mtd 3 chuang senga hnathawh tenau tak chu a titawp thei a ni. University tana thilpek pakhat chauh pek tawh zinga lian ber a ni. Geneticist-te zirchianna chuan environmentalist-te chu kawng thar leh a chang chuan nuam lo takin hmalam hun chu hmachhawn turin a nawr a, chu chu thilsiam khawvel siamthat chu Eden huan, a chhe tawh lo takah kir leh tihna a ni hauh lo tih hi a ni. Chu ai chuan, kan chanvo kan lo chan tawh chu pawm tihna a ni thei zawk: thilsiam telin engkim engineer.
Chestnut hnah hi a sei a, ha a nei bawk a, a hnah lairil vein nena inzawm, green saw blade te tak te pahnih ang mai a ni. A tawp khatah chuan hnah pahnih chu zung pakhatah an inzawm a. A tawp lamah chuan a tip hrual hrual an siam a, chu chu a sir lamah a ben fo thin. He beisei loh pianzia hian thingtlang lama green leh sand dunes reh tak takte chu a tikehsawm a, hiker-te mumang mak tak mai chuan mipui ngaihven a hlawh hle a, hmân laiin thing chak tak tak tam tak awmna ramngaw chhunga an zinkawng chu a hriat nawn tir a ni.
Thu leh hla leh hriatrengna hmang chauhvin heng thingte hi kan hrethiam kim thei ang. American Chestnut Collaborator Foundation executive director Lucille Griffin chuan vawi khat chu chutah chuan chestnut hautak tak tak i hmu ang tih a ziak a, thlasik lai chuan thing chunga pangpar creamy, linear tak takte chu “like The foamy waves rolled down the hillside” a ni a, chu chuan pi leh pu hriatrengna a thlen a ni. Thlasik lai chuan thing chu a puak leh ang a, tun ṭumah chuan a thlum chu a khuh vek ang. “Chestnuts a puitlin chuan thlasik laiin bushel chanve ka pile thin,” tiin Thoreau nung tak chuan “Walden”-ah a ziak a. “Chu season-ah chuan chutih laia Lincoln-a chestnut forest tawp nei lo vakvai chu a nuam hle a ni.”
Chestnut hi a rintlak hle. Kum tlemte chhunga acorn chauh thlak thin oak thing ang lo takin, chestnut thing hian thlasik apiangin nut chi tam tak a siam chhuak thin. Chestnut hi ei a awlsam bawk: a hnah chu i hnawih thei a, a raw pawh i ei thei bawk. (Acorn tamna tannins hmang tum la-a nih loh leh ti suh.) Mi zawng zawng hian chestnut kan ei vek a: deer, squirrel, bear, bird, human. Loneitute chuan an vawkte chu an thlahthlam a, ramngaw chhungah thau an hlawh chhuak thin. Krismas lai chuan tlang atanga khawpui lam pan chuan chestnut khata khat rel a tlan thin. Ni e, meipuiin a kang tak zet a ni. “Hmun ṭhenkhatah chuan loneitute chuan loneih thil dang zawng zawng aiin chestnut hralhna aṭangin sum an hmu tam zawk niin an sawi a ni,” tiin a hnua Maynard leh Powell-a te hnathawhna school dean hmasa ber William L. Bray chuan a sawi. Written in 1915. Mipui kung a ni a, a tam zawk chu ramngaw ah a thang thin.
Chaw chauh ni lovin thil dang tam tak a pe bawk. Chestnut thing hi feet 120-ah a sang thei a, feet 50 hmasa ber chu a hnah emaw, knot emaw hian a tibuai lo. Hei hi thingrem siamtute mumang a ni. Thing mawi ber leh chak ber pawh ni lo mah se, a thang chak hle a, a bik takin a tan hnua a lo hring leh a, a ro loh chuan a thang chak hle. Rel kawng tie leh telephone pole-te chhe thei lo chuan aesthetics a phak loh avangin Chestnut chuan industrialized America dinna kawngah a pui a ni. Chestnut hmanga siam ran vulhna hmun, cabin leh biak in sang tam tak chu a la ding reng a; lehkhabu ziaktu pakhat chuan kum 1915 khan hei hi United States-a thing chi hrang hrang tihchhiat tam ber a nih thu a chhut a.
Khawchhak lam tam zawkah-thingte hi Mississippi atanga Maine thlengin an awm a, Atlantic tuipui kam atanga Mississippi lui thlengin-chestnuts pawh chutiang zinga mi a ni. Mahse Appalachian-ah chuan thing lian tak a ni. Heng tlangah hian chestnut maktaduai tam tak an cheng a ni.
Fusarium wilt hi New York-ah a lo lang hmasa ber a, chu chu American tam tak luhna kawngkhar a ni. Kum 1904 khan Bronx Zoo-a chestnut thing boral mai tur hnah ah natna mak tak mai an hmuchhuak a. Researcher-te chuan bacterial blight thlentu fungus (a hnuah Cryphonectria parasitica tia koh) chu kum 1876 daih tawh khan Japanese thing lakluhnaah a lo thleng tawh tih an hre nghal vat a. (A chi khat rawn luh tirh leh harsatna langsar tak hmuhchhuah inkar hi hun rei tak a awm tlangpui.)
Rei vak lovah state engemaw zatah chuan thing thi mek an report ta a ni. Kum 1906 khan New York Botanical Garden-a mycologist William A. Murrill-a chuan he natna chungchanga scientific article hmasa ber a tichhuak a. Muriel chuan he fungus hian chestnut thing hnah ah yellowish-brown blister infection a siam a, chu chuan a tawpah chuan a hnah vel chu a ti fai ta tih a tarlang. Bark hnuaia bark vessel-a nutrients leh tui a luang chho leh chhuk theih tawh loh hunah chuan death ring chunglam zawng zawng chu a thi vek ang.
Mi thenkhat chuan ramngaw atanga thing bo bo chu an ngaihtuah thei lo-a nih loh leh midang ngaihtuah an duh lo. Kum 1911 khan Pennsylvania-a kindergarten company pakhat Sober Paragon Chestnut Farm chuan he natna hi “hlauhna mai ni lovin” a ring a. Hun rei tak chhunga mawhphurhna nei lo journalist awm. He farm hi kum 1913 khan khar a ni a, kum hnih kalta khan Pennsylvania chuan chestnut natna committee a ko a, US dollar 275,000 (chutih laia sum tam tak) hman phalna a pe a, he natna dona atana hmalakna tur thuneihna package a puang a, chutah chuan mimal thila thing tihchhiat theihna tur dikna pawh a tel a ni. Pathologist-te chuan kangmei venna effect siam turin main infection hmalam atanga mel tlemte chhunga chestnut thing zawng zawng chu paih vek turin an rawt a ni. Mahse he fungus hi thing natna hrik nei loah a zuang thla thei tih a chiang a, a spore te hi thli, sava, rulhut leh mihring ten an kai thei tih a chiang ta. Ruahmanna chu an thlahthlam ta a ni.
Kum 1940 thleng khan chestnut lian tak tak pawh an awm lo tluk a ni. Vawiin hian dollar tluklehdingawn tam tak hlutna chu tihboral a ni ta. Fusarium wilt hi leia a awm theih loh avangin chestnut zung chu a lo chhuak chhunzawm zel a, chung zinga maktaduai 400 chuang chu ramngaw chhungah an la awm reng a ni. Mahse, Fusarium wilt hian a awmna oak thingah hian a host-ah chhiatna lian tham a thlen lovin reservoir a hmu a ni. Chuta tang chuan rang takin chestnut hnah tharah a darh a, leiah a knock leh a, a tlangpuiin pangpar an thlen hma rei takah a tla thla thin.
Timber industry chuan a danglamna dang an hmuchhuak a: oak, pine, walnut, leh ash. Industry lian dang, chestnut thinga innghat, Tanning chuan synthetic tanning agents a hmang ta a ni. Loneitu rethei tam tak tan chuan thlak danglam tur a awm lo: native thing dang reng reng hian loneitute leh an ran te hnenah calorie leh protein a thlawna, rintlak leh tam tak a pe lo. Chestnut blight hian Appalachian-ho mahni inrintawkna neia loneih dan tlanglawn tak chu a titawp niin an sawi thei a, chu chuan chu hmuna mite chu duhthlan tur chiang tak nei turin a nawr a ni: lungalhthei laihchhuahna hmuna kal emaw, insawn emaw. Historian Donald Davis-a chuan kum 2005-ah heti hian a ziak a: “Chestnut thihna avângin khawvêl pum pui hi a thi tawh a, kum zabi li chuang zet Appalachian Tlânga awm tawh dam khawchhuahna nunphung chu a bo ta a ni.”
Powell hi Appalachian leh chestnut atanga hla takah a seilian a. A pa chu Air Force-ah a thawk a, a chhungte hnenah a insawn a: Indiana, Florida, Germany leh Maryland khawchhak lam tuipui kamah. New York-ah hian hun hmang mah se, a thusawiah chuan Midwest-ho thusawi dik tak leh South lam bias fiah lo tak, mahse hriat theih tak takte chu a vawng reng a ni. A nungchang awlsam tak leh tailoring style awlsam tak chu a inmil hle a, jeans-ah hian plaid shirt rotation tawp nei lo ang maia lang a awm. A interjection duh ber chu “wow” tih hi a ni.
Powell hian genetics professor pakhatin agriculture thar, greener zawk, genetically modified plant hmanga siam, a mah ngeiin insect leh natna laka inven theihna a siam chhuah theihna tur beiseina a tiam hma chuan ran enkawltu nih a tum a ni. “Ka ngaihtuah a, wow, rannung laka inven thei tur thlai siam hi a tha lo, a chungah pesticide engmah i theh a ngai lo?” Powell-a chuan a ti a. “A dik e, khawvel dang zawng zawng hian ngaihdan inang hi an zawm lo.”
Kum 1983-a Utah State University-a graduate school-a Powell-a a thlen khan a ngaihtuah lo. Mahse, biologist laboratory-ah a lut ve ta mai a, blight fungus tichak lo thei virus siam tumin hma a la mek a ni. He virus hi hman an tumna chu a kal tha lo hle: a mah chauhin thing pakhat atanga thing dangah a darh lo va, chuvangin fungal chi hrang hrang dozens tam tak tan pawha siam a ngai a ni. Chuti chung pawh chuan Powell-a chuan thing lian tak tla chanchin chu a ngaihven hle a, mihring siam tihsual rapthlak tak tak lo thleng tur chu scientific solution a pe a ni. Heti hian a sawi: “Khawvel hmun hrang hranga kan bungraw kalte enkawl that loh avangin natna hrik kan lakluh palh a ni,” a ti. “Ka ngaihtuah a: Wow, hei hi a ngaihnawm a, rawn hruai kir leh theihna hun a awm.”
Powell hi chak lohna tihbo tumna hmasa ber a ni lo. American chestnuts chu a hlawhchham ngei dawn tih a chiang hnuah USDA chuan Chinese chestnut thing, a cousin, a hring thei lo zawk chu phun tumin he chi hian American chestnut a thlak thei em tih hriatthiam tumin an bei ta a ni. Mahse, chestnut hi pawn lam hawiin a thang tam ber a, thei kung aiin thei kung ang deuh a ni. Ramngaw chhungah chuan oak thing leh American mi lian dangte chuan an dwarf a. An thanlenna chu a block a, a nih loh leh an thi mai mai a ni. Scientist-te pawhin United States leh China aṭanga chestnut chi hrang hrang siam dun an tum a, an pahnih mizia ṭha tak nei thing siam chhuah an beisei. Sorkar hmalakna chu a hlawhchham a, an thlahthlam ta a ni.
Powell hian State University of New York School of Environmental Science and Forestry-ah hna a thawk zo ta a, chutah chuan laboratory-a thing phun thin, geneticist Chuck Maynard nen an inhmu a ni. Kum tlemte kalta chauh khan scientist-te chuan genetically modified plant tissue hmasa ber an siam a, chu chu sumdawnna atana hman ai chuan technical demonstration atan zuk leh hmuam laka antibiotic resistance pe thei gene a dah belh a ni. Maynard (Maynard) chuan technology thar lamah a inhmang tan a, chutih rualin chu nena inzawm technology tangkai tak tak a zawng bawk. Chutih lai chuan Darling hian thlai chi engemaw zat a nei a, harsatna a nei bawk: American chestnut siamthat.
Kum sang tam tak chhunga thlai chi thlah dan phung pangngaiah chuan loneitute (leh tun hnaia scientist-te) chuan duhthusam mizia nei chi hrang hrang an inzawm khawm a. Tichuan, genes te chu a pianphungah an inzawm khawm a, miten quality sang zawk-a lian zawk, thei tui zawk emaw natna laka invenna atan mixture beisei awm tak tak an thlang thin. A tlangpuiin thil siam chhuah nan hian thlah engemaw zat a ngai thin. Hetiang kalphung hi a slow a, a buaithlak deuh bawk. Darling chuan he hmanrua hian a ramsa ang maia thing tha tak a siam chhuak ang em tih a ngaihtuah a. Ani chuan: “Kan ti ṭha theiin ka hria,” tiin min hrilh a.
Genetic engineering tih awmzia chu control nasa zawk tihna a ni: gene bik chu chi inzawm lo atanga lo chhuak pawh ni se, thil tum bik atan thlan theih a ni a, thil nung dang genome-ah dah theih a ni. (Chi hrang hrang aṭanga gene nei thil nungte chu “genetically modified” an ni. Tun hnaiah scientist-te chuan target organism-te genome direct-a edit theihna technique an siam chhuak a ni.) He technology hian a hmaa a la awm ngai loh precision leh speed a tiam a ni. Powell chuan hei hi American chestnuts tan chuan a inhmeh hle niin a ngai a, chu chu “thing famkim tak tak” tia a sawi-chak, sang, leh ei tur tamna, siamthatna chiang tak chauh a mamawh a ni: bacterial blight laka invenna.
Dear pawm rawh. Ani chuan: “Kan sumdawnnaah hian engineer kan neih a ngai a ni,” a ti. “Construction atanga construction thlengin hei hi automation chi khat chauh a ni.”
Powell leh Maynard-a te chuan resistance pe thei genes zawng chhuak a, chestnut genome-a dah belh thei tur technology siam chhuah a, chu chu tihpun a nih theih nan kum sawm a ngai mai thei niin an chhut. Powell chuan, “Kan lo guess mai mai a ni,” a ti. “Tuman fungal resistance pe thei gene an nei lo. Hmun hring atang hian kan tan tak zet a ni.”
Darling hian kum 1980 chhoa din, hlawkna nei lo pawl American Chestnut Foundation aṭangin ṭanpuina a dil a ni. A hruaitu chuan a bul berah chuan a bo tih a hrilh a. Hybridization lama an inpekna leh genetic engineering chungchangah an fimkhur reng a, hei hian environmentalist-te dodalna a siam a ni. Chuvangin Darling chuan genetic engineering hnathawhna tur sum thawh nan a non-profit organization a din ta a ni. Powell chuan he pawl hian Maynard leh Powell-te hnenah cheque hmasa ber chu $30,000-in an ziak tih a sawi. (Kum 1990 khan ram pum huap pawl chuan siam\hat a, Darling-a inlakhran duh pawl chu a state branch hmasa ber atan a pawm a, mahse member ṭhenkhat chuan genetic engineering hi an la ringhlel emaw, an la do tlat emaw a ni.)
Maynard leh Powell te chu hnathawhna hmunah an awm a. Chutah tak mai chuan an hun ruahman chu a dik lo tih a chiang ta a ni. Daltu hmasa ber chu laboratory-a chestnut chin dan tur ngaihtuah hi a ni. Maynard hian chestnut hnah leh growth hormone chu plastic petri dish round shallow-ah a pawlh a, poplar chinna atana hman thin a ni. Hei hi thil tak tak a ni lo tih a chiang ta. Thing tharte hian specialized cell atanga zung leh hnah an siam chhuak dawn lo. Maynard-a chuan: “Khawvel pum huapa chestnut thing thah kawngah hmahruaitu ka ni,” a ti. University of Georgia-a zirchiangtu, Scott Merkle (Scott Merkle) chuan a tawpah chuan Maynard-a chu embryo-a pollination atanga a lo awm tur Plant chestnuts-a kal dan tur chu embryo-a hmasawnna stage-ah a zirtir ta a ni.
Gene dik tak hmuh chhuah-Powell-a hnathawh-te pawh chu thil harsa tak a ni tih a chiang hle. Kum eng emaw zat chu frog genes hmanga antibacterial compound siam a zirchiang a, mahse mipuiin frog nei thing an pawm loh mai theih an hlauhthawn avangin he compound hi a bansan ta a ni. Chestnut-a bacterial blight laka gene a zawng bawk a, mahse thing venhimna atan hian gene tam tak a tel tih a hmuchhuak (paruk tal an hmuchhuak). Tichuan, kum 1997 khan a thawhpui pakhat chu scientific meeting a\angin a lo haw a, abstract leh presentation a list a. Powell chuan “Transgenic plant-a oxalate oxidase expression hian oxalate leh oxalate siamtu fungi laka invenna a pe” tih thupui chu a tarlang a. Virus a zirchianna atang chuan Powell hian wilt fungi hian oxalic acid a pe chhuak a, chu chuan chestnut bark a that a, a ei awlsam phah tih a hre chiang hle. Powell-a chuan chestnut hian a mah ngeiin oxalate oxidase (oxalate tichhia thei protein bik) a siam thei a nih chuan a inveng thei mai thei tih a hre chiang hle. Ani chuan: “Chu chu ka Eureka moment a ni,” a ti.
Thlai tam tak hian oxalate oxidase siam chhuah theihna tur gene an nei tih a chiang ta. Thusawi petu zirchiangtu hnen atangin Powell hian buhfai chi khat a hmu a. Graduate student Linda Polin McGuigan chuan “gene gun” technology chu a tichangtlung a, chestnut embryo-ah genes a luhtir a, embryo DNA-ah dah theih a beisei. Gene chu embryo chhungah hian rei lo te chhung a awm a, mahse a bo ta a ni. Research team chuan he method hi an kalsan a, hun rei tak kalta atanga thil nung dangte DNA snipping a, an genes dah luh dan tur siamtu bacterium-ah an inthlak ta a ni. Nature-ah chuan microorganisms te hian gene an dah belh a, chu chuan host chu bacteria ei tur siam turin a nawr lui a ni. Geneticist-te chuan he bacterium hi scientist duh zawng gene a dah luh theih nan an rawn bei a. McGuigan hian chestnut embryo-ah wheat genes leh marker proteins rintlak taka dah theihna a nei ta a ni. Microscope hmanga protein hi irradiate a nih chuan green light a pe chhuak ang a, hei hian hlawhtling taka dah a nih thu a tarlang. (Team chuan marker protein hman chu an titawp nghal vat a-tu mahin thing eng thei chu an duh lo.) Maynard chuan chu method chu “khawvela thil mawi ber” tiin a sawi.
Hun a kal zel a, Maynard leh Powell-a te chuan chestnut assembly line an siam a, tunah chuan kum 1960 chhoa brick-and-mortar forestry research building ropui tak, floor engemaw zat thlenga zau a ni a, chubakah off-campus-a “Biotech Accelerator” facility thar eng mawi tak pawh a awm bawk. A hmasa berah chuan genetically identical cell atanga lo piang embryo thlan a ni (lab-a siam embryo tam zawk chuan hetiang hi an ti lo a, chuvangin clone siam hi a tangkai lo) wheat genes te dah luh a ni. Embryonic cells, agar ang chi hi pudding ang chi, algae atanga lak chhuah a ni. Embryo chu thingah a chantir theih nan zirchiangtute chuan growth hormone an dah belh a. Cube ang maia siam plastic bawm za tam tak, zung nei lo chestnut thing te tak te te chu shelf-ah fluorescent lamp chak tak hnuaiah dah theih a ni. A tawpah chuan scientist-te chuan rooting hormone an hmang a, an thing hmasa berte chu leia khat bêlah an phun a, temperature controlled growth chamber-ah an dah a ni. Laboratory-a thingte chu pawnah an dinhmun a chhe hle tih hi mak a ti lo. Chuvangin, zirchiangtute chuan ramngaw thing nen an paih a, field testing atan specimen khauh zawk mahse a la do thei tho a ni.
Summer hnih kalta khan Powell-a lab-a graduate zirlai Hannah Pilkey-i chuan hetiang tih dan tur min entir a. Bacteria blight thlentu fungus chu plastic petri dish te tak teah a chin a ni. Hetiang closed form-ah hian pale orange pathogen hi benign leh mawi tak ang maiin a lang. Mipui thihna leh chhiatna thlentu a ni tih ngaihtuah harsa tak a ni.
Leia giraffe chu leiah a bawkkhup a, thinghnah te tak te, millimeter nga vela sei chu a chhinchhiah a, scalpel hmangin chiang takin vawi thum a ti na a, hliam chungah chuan blight a hnawih bawk. Plastic film hmangin a seal a. Ani chuan: “Band-aid ang mai a ni,” a ti. Hei hi non-resistant “control” thing a nih avangin, orange infection hi inoculation site atanga rang taka darh a, a tawpah chuan a hnah te te chu a hual vel a beisei a ni. A hmaa a lo enkawl tawh buh gene awmna thing thenkhat min hmuhtir a. Infection hi incision-ah chauh a awm a, chu chu hmui te tak te hnaih ber orange hmui te tak te te hi a ni.
Kum 2013 khan Maynard leh Powell te hian Transgenic Research-ah an hlawhtlinna an puang a: American chestnut natna an hmuhchhuah atanga kum 109 hnuah chuan mahni invenna tur anga lang Trees an siam a, chu chu fungi hring tam takin a rawn bei a nih pawhin. An thilpek hmasa ber leh thilpek pe ber chawimawina atan hian $250,000 vel a invest a, zirchiangtute chuan a hming chawiin thing an vuah nasa hle. Hei hi Darling 58 an ti a.
American Chestnut Foundation-a New York Chapter kum tin inkhawmpui hi October 2018, Zirtawpni ruah sur lai khan New Paltz khawpui pawna hotel tlemteah neih a ni a, mi 50 vel an pungkhawm a ni. He inkhawm hi a then chu scientific meeting a ni a, a then chu chestnut exchange meeting a ni bawk. Meeting room te tak te hnung lamah chuan member te chuan Ziploc bag nut khata khat chu an inthleng a. He inkhawm hi kum 28 chhunga Darling emaw Maynard emaw an tel loh vawi khatna a ni. Hriselna lama harsatna avangin an pahnih hian a hlat hle. “Hetiang hi kan ti rei tawh hle a, kum tin deuhthaw hian mitthite tan kan ngawi reng thin,” tiin club president Allen Nichols chuan min hrilh a. Chuti chung pawh chuan, mood chu a la beisei awm reng a ni: genetically modified thing hian kum tam tak chhung chu safety leh efficacy test harsa tak tak a paltlang tawh a ni.
Chapter member-te chuan New York State-a chestnut thing lian tak tak pakhat zel dinhmun chipchiar takin an sawi a. Pilkey leh graduate zirlai dangte chuan pollen khawlkhawm leh dahkhawm dan te, indoor light hnuaia chestnut chin dan te, thing dam rei theihna tura leilung blight infection nena khat dan te an zirtir a ni. Cashew chested mite hian an zinga tam tak chuan pollinate an siam a, anmahni thing an phun a, scientist naupangte hnenah zawhna an siam a ni.
Bowell chuan leiah a thu a, he bung atana unofficial uniform ang maia lang chu a ha a: neckline shirt jeans chhunga inthup a ni. A rilru pakhata a thil tum-kum sawmthum chhung zet Herb Darling-a’n chestnuts neih let leh tumna chhehvela a hnathawhna chu academic scientist-te zingah a tlem hle a, kum nga chhunga sum hmuhna cycle-ah research an nei tam zawk a, chutah chuan The promising results are handed over to others for commercialization. Powell-a Environmental Science and Forestry Department-a ka thawhpui Don Leopold-a chuan heti hian min hrilh a: “A ngaihsak em em a, a discipline em em bawk a ni,” a ti. “Curtain a bun a, thil dang tam takin a tibuai lo. A tawpah zirchiannain hmasawnna a neih chuan State University of New York (SUNY) administrator-te chuan an biak a, university-in a hlawkpui theih nan a thing tan patent an dil a, mahse Powell-a chuan a duh lo.
Mahse, a vaukhân a ni: Technical lama harsatna tam zawk an hneh hnuah, genetically modified thingte hian tunah chuan harsatna lian ber an hmachhawn mai thei: US sorkar. Kar tlemte kalta khan Powell hian phek 3,000 vel zeta sei file chu US Department of Agriculture-a Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service-ah a thehlut a, he Service hian genetically modified plant pawmpuina hna a thawk a ni. Hei hian agency-in a pawmpuina a tan tir a: dilna chu enfiah a, mipui ngaihdan dil a, environment impact statement siam a, mipui ngaihdan dil leh a, thutlukna siam a ni. He hna hian kum engemaw zat a daih thei. Thutlukna a awm loh chuan project chu a tawp mai thei. (Public comment period hmasa ber chu a la inhawng lo.)
Researcher-te hian Food and Drug Administration hnenah petition dang thehluh an tum a, chutiang chuan genetically modified nut-te ei leh in him leh him loh a enfiah thei ang a, Environmental Protection Agency chuan he thing hian boruak a nghawng dan chu Federal Pesticide Law hnuaiah a enfiah ang a, hei hi genetically modified plant zawng zawng tan a ngai a ni. biological a ni. “Hei hi science aiin a buaithlak zawk!” mipui zinga mi pakhat chuan a ti a.
"Awle." Powell-a chuan a remti a. “Science hi a ngaihnawm a, a lungchhiatthlak hle mai.” (A hnuah heti hian min hrilh a: “Agencie hrang hrang pathum enkawlna hi overkill a ni. Environment humhalhna lama thil thar siamna a that tak zet a ni.”)
An thingkung hi a him tih finfiah nan Powell-a team chuan test hrang hrang an nei a. Bees pollen chu oxalate oxidase an pe a. Leilung chhunga fungi \angkai tak takte lo thanglian dan an teh a. A hnah chu tuiah an dah a, t. Zirna pakhatah pawh nghawng tha lo a awm lo-a nihna takah chuan, genetically modified diet performance hi thing thenkhat unmodified hnah aiin a tha zawk. Scientist-te chuan he nut hi Oak Ridge National Laboratory leh Tennessee-a laboratory dangah te zirchiang turin an thawn a, thing siam danglam lo atanga siam nut nen hian danglamna a awm lo.
Chutiang result chuan regulator-te chu a ti thlamuang thei a ni. GMO dodaltu activist-te chu an tithinur dawn lo tih a chiang. Monsanto atanga scientist pension tawh John Dougherty chuan Powell hi a thlawnin consulting service a pe a ni. Chûng dodâltute chu “dodâlna” tiin a sawi a. Kum sawm tam tak chhung chu environment organization-te chuan hla taka inzawm chi hrang hrang inkara genes sawn hian thil tum loh tak a nei dawn tih an lo vaukhân tawh a, chu chu natural plant-te tluk pha “super weed” siam emaw, host thlen thei ram dang genes luhtir emaw a ni The possibility of harmful mutations in the DNA of the species.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Company-te chuan patent an hmuh theih nan leh thil nungte control nan genetic engineering an hmang tih an ngaihtuah bawk.
Tunah hian Powell chuan industry source aṭangin direct-a pawisa a dawng lo tih a sawi a, laboratory-a sum thawh chu “tied lo” a nih thu a sawi nghet tlat a ni. Mahse, “Indigenous Environmental Network” tia koh pawl dintu Brenda Jo McManama chuan kum 2010-a inremna an siam chu a tarlang a, chutah chuan Monsanto chuan Chestnut Foundation leh a thawhpui agency New York The chapter chuan genetic modification patent pahnih phalna a pe a ni. (Powell chuan industry contribution, Monsanto telin, a work capital zawng zawng atanga 4% aia tlem lo a nih thu a sawi.) McManama chuan Monsanto (2018-a Bayer-in a lei) hian a rukin patent lak a tum niin a ring a, hei hi nakin lawka thing iteration anga lang chu a thlawp a ni. Mahni hmasialna nei lo project. “Monsan hi a sual vek a ni,” tiin chiang takin a sawi.
Powell chuan kum 2010-a inremna siama patent an neih chu a tawp tawh tih a sawi a, scientific literature-a a thing chungchang chipchiar taka a puan chhuah avang hian he thing hi patent pek theih a nih loh thu a tichiang tawh tih a sawi. Mahse hei hian lungkhamna zawng zawng a ti bo vek dawn lo tih a hre chiang hle. Ani chuan, “Mi pakhatin Monsanto tan bait mai i ni a ti ang tih ka hria,” a ti a. “Eng nge i tih theih ang?I tih theih reng reng a awm lo.”
Kum nga vel kalta khan American Chestnut Foundation hruaitute chuan hybridization chauh hmangin an thil tum an hlen chhuak thei lo tih an sawi chhuak a, chuvang chuan Powell-a genetic engineering program chu an pawm ta a ni. He thutlukna hian inrem lohna engemaw zat a siam a. Kum 2019 March thla khan Massachusetts-Rhode Island Chapter of the Foundation president, Lois Breault-Melican chuan Buffalo-a awm, anti-gene engineering organization, Global Justice Ecology Project (Global Justice Project) chungchang sawiin, a ban a ni. Justice Ecology Project) thubuai siamsak a ni a; a pasal Denis Melican pawhin board a chhuahsan bawk. Dennis chuan an nupa hian Powell-a chestnuts chu “Trojan horse” a ni mai thei tih an hlau hle tih min hrilh a, chu chuan sumdawnna atana thing dangte tan genetic engineering hmanga supercharged theihna kawng a hawng ta a ni.
Agricultural economist Susan Offutt hian National Academy of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine Committee chairman hna a thawk a, kum 2018 khan forest biotechnology chungchanga zirchianna an nei a, sorkarin regulatory process a kalpui danah hian biological risk chungchang thupui tawi tak a ngaih pawimawh thu a sawi a, anti-GMO activist-te sawi chhuah ang chi social concern zau zawk a ngaihtuah ngai lo tluk a ni. “Ramngaw hlutna (intrinsic value) chu eng nge ni?” a zawt a, buaina entir nan, a kalphung chu a chinfel loh. “Ramngaw hian a thatna a nei em?Intervention thutlukna siam hunah hei hi ngaihtuah turin moral obligation kan nei em?”
Scientist ka biak tam zawkte chuan Powell-a thingte hi ngaihtuah chhan tur an nei tlem hle a, a chhan chu ramngaw hian chhiatna nasa tak a tawk a ni: thing phun te, lung laihchhuah te, hmasawnna te, leh thing tichhe thei rulhut leh natna tawp chin nei lo. Chung zingah chuan chestnut wilt hi An hawnna inkhawm a ni tih finfiah a ni. New York-a Millbrook-a Cary Ecosystem Institute-a forest ecologist Gary Lovett chuan, “Thil nung thar famkim thar kan rawn luhtir fo ṭhin a ni,” a ti. “Genetically modified chestnuts hian nghawng a nei tlem zawk hle.”
Donald Waller, forest ecologist, tun hnaia University of Wisconsin-Madison atanga chawlhsan chuan a kal thui zawk a ni. Heti hian min hrilh a: “Khawthlang lamah chuan risk leh reward inkara balance tlem ka outline a. Khawthlang lamah chuan risk zawngin ka lu ka beng reng mai,” tiin min hrilh a. He thing genetically modified hian ramngaw tan hlauhawm tak a ni thei. Chumi nêna inkalh takin, “lâwmman hnuaia phek chu ink-in a khat mai a ni.” Chestnut, wilting do thei chuan a tawpah chuan he indona ramngaw hi a hneh ngei ang, a ti. Mite chuan beiseina an mamawh a ni. Mite hian chhinchhiahna an mamawh a ni. ” a ti a.
Powell hi a rilru a hahdam duh hle a, mahse genetic engineering ringhleltute chuan a ti nghing thei. Ani chuan: “Ka tan chuan awmzia an nei lo,” a ti a. “Science-a innghat an ni lo.” Engineer-te'n car emaw smartphone tha zawk an siam hian tumahin an phunnawi lo va, chuvangin thing design tha zawkte chu eng nge dik lo tih hriat a duh a ni. Powell chuan, “Hei hi hmanraw tangkai tak a ni,” a ti. “Engvangin nge he hmanrua hi kan hmang thei lo tih i sawi a, Phillips screwdriver kan hmang thei a, mahse screwdriver pangngai erawh a ni lo, a lehlamah pawh?”
Kum 2018 October thla tir lam khan Powell-a chu Syracuse khawthlang lam field station mild takah ka zui a. American chestnut chi hrang hrangte hmalam hun a lo thang zel a beisei. He hmun hi a chhe tawh hle a, thing phun phalna hmun tlemte zinga mi a ni. Hun rei tak chhunga research project kalpui tawh aṭanga lo chhuak, pine leh larch huan sang tak takte chu khawchhak lam hawiin, thlipui tleh aṭanga hla takah an inher a, chu chuan chu hmun chu a ti hlauhawm deuh hlek a ni.
Powell-a laboratory-a zirchiangtu Andrew Newhouse chuan scientist-te tana thing ṭha ber zinga mi, Virginia khawthlang lam aṭanga lo piang, wild chestnut siam tumin hma a la mek a ni. He thing hi feet 25 vel a sang a ni a, chestnut huan, feet 10-a sang deer fence-in a hual vel, randomly arranged chestnut orchard-ah a thang lian a ni. School bag chu thing hnah thenkhat tawp lamah an khih a. Newhouse chuan a chhunga plastic bag chu June thlaa scientist-te’n an dil Darling 58 pollen-ah a tang tih a sawifiah a, pawn lam metal mesh bag chuan squirrel-te chu burr lo thang lian lo turin a hlat tir thung. Setup pumpui hi United States Department of Agriculture-in uluk taka enkawl a ni a; deregulation hmain fence emaw researcher laboratory-a genetically added genes nei thing atanga pollen emaw nut emaw chu isolated a ngai a ni.
Newhouse chuan a hnah hrang hrangah retractable pruning shear hmangin a manipulate a. Rope hmanga a chhuah chuan a blade chu a chhe a, bag chu a tla ta a ni. Newhouse chu rang takin bagged branch dang lamah a insawn a, chutiang chuan a ti leh ta a ni. Powell chuan bag tlate chu a la khawm a, biohazardous materials a khawih ang bawkin plastic bawlhhlawh bawm lian takah a dah a ni.
Laboratory-a an kir leh hnu chuan Newhouse leh Hannah Pilkey te chuan bag chu an hrufai a, rang takin green burrs atang chuan brown nuts an la chhuak ta a ni. Hling chu vunah a luh loh nan an fimkhur a, hei hi chestnut zirchiannaah chuan hnathawhna atana hlauhawm tak a ni. Tun hma chuan genetically modified nut hlu tak tak zawng zawng chu an duh vek a. Tun ṭumah chuan a tawpah chuan thil tam tak an nei ta a ni: 1,000 chuang. Pirkey chuan, “Kan zavaiin hlim taka zai te te kan ti vek a ni,” a ti.
Chumi chawhnu lamah chuan Powell-a chuan chestnut chu lobby-a Neil Patterson-a office-ah a hruai a. Indigenous Peoples Day (Columbus Day) a ni a, ESF-a Center for Indigenous Peoples and the Environment-a Assistant Director Patterson-a chu campus hmun li a\anga a lo haw chauh a, chutah chuan indigenous food demonstration a kaihruai a ni. A fate pahnih leh a farnu te chu office-ah computer-ah an inkhel a. Mi zawng zawngin nut an peel a, an ei vek bawk. “An la green deuh a ni,” Powell chuan pawi ti zet hian a ti a.
Powell-a thilpek hi multi-purpose a ni. Thlai chi a sem chhuak mek a, Patterson-a network hmangin hmun thara chestnut phun a beisei a, kum engemaw zat chhungin genetically modified pollen an dawng thei dawn a ni. Chestnut diplomacy thiam tak a nei bawk.
Kum 2014-a ESF-in Patterson an lak khan Powell hian genetically engineered thing a experiment tih a hrechhuak a, chu chu Onondaga Nation Resident Territory aṭanga mel tlemte chauh a hla a ni. Hemi hnuhnung zawk hi Syracuse khawchhak lam mel tlemte vela hla ramngaw-ah a awm a ni. Patterson chuan he project hi a hlawhtlin chuan a tawpah chuan natna dotu genes te chu ram chhungah an lut ang a, chutah chuan chestnut la awmte nen an inzawm ang tih a hrechhuak a, chu chuan Onodaga identity atana pawimawh tak ramngaw chu a thlak danglam ang. Hmun danga genetically modified organisms dodal tura activist-te, indigenous community aṭanga lo kal ṭhenkhat pawh tiamin, ngaihtuahna a awm thu a sawi bawk. Entirnan, kum 2015 khan Yurok hnam chuan Northern California-ah GMO reservation an khap a, hei hi an thlai leh salmon sangha man te tihbawlhhlawh a nih theih dan tur an ngaihtuah vang a ni.
“Hetah hian hetiang hi kan chungah a thleng tih ka hre chiang a;a tlem berah chuan inbiakna kan nei tur a ni,” tiin Patterson chuan min hrilh a. Kum 2015-a ESF-in Environmental Protection Agency meeting an neihah Powell hian New York-a indigenous peoples member-te hnenah thu a sawi a, a inbuatsaih ṭha hle. Thusawi zawhah Patterson-a chuan hruaitu engemaw zatin: “Thing kan phun tur a ni!” An thahnemngaihna chuan Patterson-a chu mak a ti hle. Ani chuan: “Ka beisei lo,” a ti a.
Mahse, a hnu lama inbiaknaah chuan an zinga tlemte chauhvin a hnam nunphungah chestnut thingin a chanvo a neih chu an hre reng tak zet tih a lang. Patterson-a follow-up research chuan social unrest leh ecological destruction a ruala a thlen lai hian US sorkar chuan forced demobilization leh assimilation plan zau tak a kalpui mek a, hripui chu a lo thleng ta tih a hrilh a ni. Thil dang tam tak ang bawkin helai hmuna tualchhung chestnut culture hi a bo tawh a ni. Patterson-a chuan genetic engineering chungchanga ngaihdan pawh a inang lo hle tih a hmuchhuak bawk. Onoda-a lacrosse stick siamtu Alfie Jacques chuan chestnut thing aṭanga stick siam a duh hle a, he project hi a thlawp hle. Mi dangte chuan a hlauhawmna chu a nasa lutuk niin an ngai a, chuvang chuan thingte chu an dodal a ni.
Patterson hian heng dinhmun pahnih hi a hrethiam a ni. Tun hnai khan heti hian min hrilh a: “Cel phone leh ka fa ang mai a ni,” a ti. Coronavirus hri leng vangin a fa chu sikul a\angin a lo haw tih a tarlang bawk. “Ni khat chu ka chhuak vek a;an inbiak reng theih nan an zir mek a ni. A tuk zingah chuan, chutiang thilte chu i paih chhuak ang u.” Mahse kum tam tak chhung Powell nena an inbiakna chuan a rinhlelhna chu a tichak lo hle. Hun rei vak lo kal ta khan Darling thing 58 thlah zatve chuan genes introduced chu an nei dawn lo tih a hre ta a, hei hian original wild chestnuts te chu ramngaw chhungah an lo thang zel dawn tihna a ni. Patterson chuan hei hian harsatna lian tak a tihbo thu a sawi.
October thlaa kan tlawh ṭum khan GM project a thlawp kim theih loh chhan chu Powell-a’n thing leh thing nena inpawh mipuite a ngaihsak em tih a hriat loh vang a nih thu min hrilh a. “A tan eng nge awm ka hre lo,” Patterson chuan a ti a, a rilruah a rawn beng a. Mihring leh chestnut inlaichinna hi siam that theih a nih chauh chuan he thing hi neih let leh a tul thu a sawi bawk.
Hemi atan hian Powell-a’n a pek nut te chu chestnut pudding leh oil siam nan hman a tum thu a sawi. Heng ei tur te hi Onondaga ram chhungah a rawn keng lut ang a, mipui te chu an thil tui tak tak te chu hmuchhuak leh turin a sawm ang. Ani chuan: “Ka beisei, i ṭhian hlui chibai bûk ang mai a ni a, a hmaa i dinna hmun aṭanga bus-a i chuan a ngai chauh a ni,” a ti.
Powell hian January thla khan Templeton World Charity Foundation aṭangin $mtd 3.2 thilpek a dawng a, hei hian Powell hian regulatory agency-te a kalpui dan tur leh a research focus chu genetics aṭanga landscape siamṭhatna zawng zawnga thil thleng tak tak thlenga a tihzauh theih nan hma a sawn theih phah dawn a ni. Sorkarin malsawmna a pek chuan Powell leh American Chestnut Foundation atanga scientist-te chuan par chhuah an phal tan dawn a ni. Pollen leh a extra genes te chu thing dang nghaktu container-ah puak emaw brush emaw a ni ang a, genetically modified chestnuts te chanchin chu controlled experimental environment atanga innghat lovin a inhawng ang. He gene hi field-ah leh laboratory-ah pawh enkawl theih a ni ang tih ngaihtuah chuan hei hi a chiang lo va, ramngaw-ah pawh a darh zel dawn a ni-hei hi scientist-te duh em em ecological point a ni a, mahse radical-te chuan an hlau hle.
Chestnut thing relaxed a awm hnuah i lei thei ang em? Ni e, Newhouse chuan chu chu ruahmanna a ni a ti. Researcher-te chu kar tin engtikah nge thing a awm tih zawhna an zawt thin.
Powell-a te, Newhouse-a te leh a thawhpui te chenna khawvelah hian ram pumin an thingpui a nghak reng ang tih hi a awlsam hle. Mahse, research farm atanga hmar lam hla vak lovah Syracuse khawpui chhunga lirthei khalh chuan American chestnuts bo a nih hnua boruak leh khawtlang nunah inthlak danglamna thuk tak a awm dan chu a hriat nawn tir a ni. Chestnut Heights Drive hi Syracuse chhim lam khawpui tenau takah a awm a, a hmun hi a nuam hle. Mi chenna kawngpui pangngai tak a ni a, lirthei tlanna kawng zau tak tak, lawn felfai tak tak, leh a chang chuan thing te te, cheimawina hmun hma lam huanah te pawh a awm bawk. . Timber company hian chestnut tihharh hi a ngai lo. Chestnuts hmanga mahni inrintawkna nei agricultural economy chu a bo vek tawh a ni. Burr khauh lutuk atang hian tumahin nut nem leh thlum an la chhuak lo tluk a ni. Mi tam zawk chuan ramngaw chhungah hian engmah bo a awm lo tih pawh an hre lo mai thei.
Ka ding a, Lake Onondaga bulah chuan ash thing lian tak hnuaiah chuan picnic dinner ka ei a. Thingkung chu bright green grey borer-in a rawn nuai a. A hnah chhunga rulhut siam khur te chu ka hmu thei. A hnah a hloh tan a, kum engemaw zat hnuah a thi thei a, a chim thei bawk. Maryland-a ka chenna aṭanga hetah hian lo kal mai maiin, kawngpui sirah pitchfork hnah hring hring lo chhuak, vut thi sang tam tak chu ka tlan pel a.
Appalachia-ah chuan company hian Bitlahua hmun zau zawk aṭangin thing an hrual a, a hnuaia lungalhthei an hmu thei a ni. Coal ram thinlung chu chestnut ram hlui thinlung nen a inmil hle. American Chestnut Foundation chuan lungalhthei laihchhuahna hmun chhuahsan tawha thing phuntu pawlte nen an thawk dun a, tunah chuan chhiatnain a nghawng ram acre sang tam takah chestnut thing a lo thang tawh a ni. Heng thingte hi bacterial blight laka invenna hybrid zinga mi chauh an ni a, mahse ni khat chu hmân lai ramngaw lian tak takte nena inel thei tur thing thlah thar nen an inmil thei a ni.
Nikum May thla khan boruakah carbon dioxide concentration chu a vawi khat nan parts per million 414.8 a tling a ni. Thing dang ang bawkin American chestnut-te tui ni lo rit zawng hi carbon chanve vel a ni. Leilung hmun khata i chin theih thil tlemte chauh hian chestnut thing lo thang lian aiin boruak atanga carbon an la rang zawk thei. Chu chu ngaihtuah chungin nikum lama Wall Street Journal-a thuziak pakhat chuan, “Chestnut farm dang nei leh ila,” tiin rawtna a siam a.